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Entropy and Partial Differential Equations

C. P. Snow relates that he occasionally became so provoked at literary colleagues who scorned the restricted reading habits of scientists that he would challenge them to explain the second law of thermodynamics. The response was invariably a cold negative silence. The test was too hard. Even a scientist would be hard-pressed to explain Carnot engines and refrigerators, reversibility and irreversibility, energy dissipation and entropy increase... all in the span of a cocktail party conversation.

Entropy and its Physical Meaning

This book is a revised version of my earlier book Entropy and Low Temperature Physics, with here rather less emphasis on the low temperature aspects of the subject. The concept of entropy lies at the heart of thermodynamics and is often thought of as obscure, even mysterious. The aim of this book is thus the same as before, namely, to make accessible the idea of entropy and to encourage an intuitive appreciation of its nature and use. In this new version, I have added exercises for the reader; mostly they are meant to be straightforward tests of understanding but sometimes they are used to extend the coverage of the text. I am very grateful to Bryan Coles for reading the manuscript, for his suggestions and for his encouragement. May I also express my thanks to Tony Guénault for valuable discussions, and the staff of Taylor & Francis for their help in preparing the manuscript for publication.

Инновацион жараёнларни молиялаштириш механизмини такомиллаштириш

Жаҳонда инновацион маҳсулотларга бўлган эҳтиёжнинг кўпайиши натижасида ихтирочи, инноватор ва ишлаб чиқариш корхоналарида молиявий ресурсларга бўлган талабнинг ортиб бориши, соҳаларда инновацион жараёнларни ташкил этишда давлат буюртмаси, давлат ва хусусий сектор ҳамкорлиги, венчур фондлар, илмий инновацион кластерлар, бизнес- фаришталар, краудфандинг каби молиялаштиришнинг замонавий механизмлардан фойдаланиш ва истиқболли лойиҳаларни ишлаб чиқаришга жорий этиш илмий тадқиқотларнинг устувор мақсадларидан ҳисобланади.

Elements of Quantum Optics

This book grew out of a 2-semester graduate course in laser physics and quantum optics. It requires a solid understanding of elementary electromagnetism as well as at least one, but preferably two, semesters of quantum mechanics. Its present form resulted from many years of teaching and research at the University of Arizona, the Max-Planck-Institut f¨ur Quantenoptik, and the University of Munich. The contents have evolved significantly over the years, due to the fact that quantum optics is a rapidly changing field. Because the amount of material that can be covered in two semesters is finite, a number of topics had to be left out or shortened when new material was added. Important omissions include the manipulation of atomic trajectories by light, superradiance, and descriptions of experiments.

ЛАНДШАФТШУНОСЛИК

XX асрнинг иккинчи ярми Ер тарихида, инсоният тарихида ўзига хос алоҳида даврни ташкил қилади. Бу даврда Ер юзасида аҳоли сонининг тез суръатлар билан ортиб бориши, саноат ва қишлоқ хўжалигининг ривожланиши, инсоннинг кучли техника воситаларидан мехнат қуроли сифатида фойдаланиши ва фаннинг бевосита ишлаб чиқариш кучларига айланиши инсоннинг табиий ресурсларга бўлган эхтиёжини орттириб юборди. У табиий ресурслардан фаол фойдалана бошлади ва ерга, тупроққа, сувга, ҳавога, ўсимликка ва ҳайвонот дунёсига кучли таъсир кўрсата бошлади. Н

ИННОВАЦИOН ЁНДАШУВЛAР АСОСИДА ТУРИСТИК ДЕСТИНАЦИЯ РАҚОБАТБАРДОШЛИГИНИ ОШИРИШ МЕХАНИЗМЛAРИНИ ТАКОМИЛЛАШТИРИШ

Дунёда коронавирус пандемияси кенг тарқалиши иқтисодиётнинг барча тармоқлари сингари туризм соҳасини ҳам баркарор ривожланишига жиддий салбий таъсир кўрсатган. Жаҳонда 2020 йилда хорижий сайёхлар ташрифи 2019 йилга нисбатан 74 фоизга камайган, туристик хизматлар экспортидан кўрилган зарар 1,3 триллион АҚШ долларига етган ва бу 2009 йилдаги жаҳон молиявий- иқтисодий инқирози сабабли кўрилган зарардан 11 баравар ортиқ бўлган. Бу эса ўз навбатида туризм соҳаси ривожланишига коронавирус пандемиясининг салбий оқибатларини ўрганиш ва соҳани барқарор ривожлантиришда замонавий инновацион ёндашувларга асосланган моделга ўтиш жараёнларини жадаллаштиришни такозо этмокда.

ЖИВЗАХНИНГ тўнғич ОЛИЙ УКУВ ЮРТИ

«Жиззах Давлат педагогика институтининг ташкил топганига 20 йил тулди. Бу рисола институт хаётидаги ана шу мух;им воцеага, яъни олийго * ташкил топган куннинг 20 йиллик юбилейига багишланади. ^ Ж иззах Давлат педагогика институти собик СССР Ми«истрлар Кенгашининг 1974 йил 26 июлдаги, Узбекистон Коммунистик партияси Марказий Комитети ва Министрлар Кенгашининг 1974 йил 4 августдаги, У збекистон М аориф Министрлигининг 1974 йил 8 августдаги * карори асосида Ж иззах шахрида ташкил топган тунгич олий укув юрти булиб, уз иш фаолиятини уша йили ^ 10 августдан эътиборан бошлади. Институт ташкил топган йили узбек тили ва адабиёти, математика факультетларида асосан 29 у^итувчи-профессор, х,амда 425 талаба билан иш бошлаган булса, х,озирги пайтда 6 факультетнинг куйдузги ва сиртци булимларида 26 миллат вакили булган 3 мингга якин талабага 4 нафар фан докториг 5 профессор, 112 та фан номзоди, доцентлар ва юздан ортик тажрибали уцитувчилар таълим бермокда. Институтда ^кув-тарбия ишлари со^асида бир к^тор силжишлар юз берди, укув хоналари, лабораториялар, янги унув асбоб-ускуналари билан таъминланиб, профессор— уцитувчилар сафи ю ксак малакали ходи/^iap билан тулдири^ди. Институгнинг Марказий Осиё мамлакатлари, Москва, Киев, Санкт-Петербург, Новосибирск, Свердловск олий укув юртлари х,амда ипмий текшириш муассасалари билан алоцаси муста^камланди

Elements for Physics

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law.

ELEMENTARY MECHANICS & THERMODYNAMICS

The reason for writing this book was due to the fact that modern introductory textbooks (not only in physics, but also mathematics, psychology, chemistry) are simply not useful to either students or instructors. The typical freshman textbook in physics, and other fields, is over 1000 pages long, with maybe 40 chapters and over 100 problems per chapter. This is overkill! A typical semester is 15 weeks long, giving 30 weeks at best for a year long course. At the fastest possible rate, we can ”cover” only one chapter per week. For a year long course that is 30 chapters at best. Thus ten chapters of the typical book are left out! 1500 pages divided by 30 weeks is about 50 pages per week. The typical text is quite densed mathematics and physics and it’s simply impossible for a student to read all of this in the detail required. Also with 100 problems per chapter, it’s not possible for a student to do 100 problems each week. Thus it is impossible for a student to fully read and do all the problems in the standard introductory books. Thus these books are not useful to students or instructors teaching the typical course!

ИННOВAЦИOН ТEXНOЛOГИЯЛAР ACOCИДA CAНOAТ КOРXOНAЛAРИНИНГ РAҚOБAТБAРДOШЛИГИНИ OШИРИШ

Сўнгги йилларда миллий иқтисодиёт рақобатбардошлигини ошириш ва унинг инновацион моделга ўтишини ташкил этиш, саноат ишлаб чиқаришини замонавий технологиялар асосида ривожлантириш, мавжуд ресурслардан самарали фойдаланган ҳолда юқори қўшимча қийматга эга бўлган тайёр маҳсулот ишлаб чиқариш каби йўналишларда кенг қамровли чора-тадбирлар амалга оширилмоқда. "Ўз иқтисодиётини мавжуд табиий ресурсларни сарфлаш эвазига эмас, инновацион маҳсулотлар яратиш, ўзлаштириш ва илғор технологияларни ишлаб чиқаришга жорий қилиш орқали ривожлантириш тараққиётнинг асосий омилига айланмоқда".

Elementary Condensed Matter Physics

The Pauli principle has strong consequences here. The tunneling of electrons between atoms favors the bonding state but if the electrons have the same spin projection this is not possible. Thus atoms with the same spin projection repel each other. In some way, as we bring two H atoms together we are trying to form a He atom. If the spins were the same the electronic configuration should be 1s 2s by the Pauli principle. If we had the atoms with electrons with opposite spin then we would get 1s² which is lower in energy. For the anti-bonding state we can have the electrons with the same spin but in this case the atom will not be stable (as shown in Fig.1.7). Thus, the ground state of the H₂ atom has to be a singlet state.

ELECTRO-OPTICS HANDBOOK

It’s often difficult to predict which areas of a field will become rejuvenated and grow rapidly or spin off to fit with another to form something new. The field of electro-optics is also unpredictable, but currently it has numerous forces acting on it. First is the development of new optical sources such as ultrafast lasers and fiber lasers to compete with semiconductor devices for pumping and lasing. The vast riches that can be obtained by work outside the visible seem to be opening up. Sources and fibers for telecommunications are moving ahead rapidly and new display devices may eventually bring an end to the vacuum tube cathode ray tubes. We believe that the material in this book will find an interested audience for many years. This second edition of the Electro-Optics Handbook both updates individual chapters where needed and adds additional chapters where new fields have emerged. Electro-optics remains a dynamic area and that will continue and broaden into many new areas. Our thanks to Steve Chapman for his help getting this edition in progress and to Marcia Patchan and Petra Captein for much of the work to move it toward composition.

POWER ELECTRONICS

Power electronics deals with the applications of solid-state electronics for the control and conversion of electric power. Conversion techniques require the switching on and off of power semiconductor devices. Low-level electronics circuits, which normally consist of integrated circuits and discrete components, generate the re- quired gating signals for the power devices. Integrated circuits and discrete com- ponents are being replaced by microprocessors. An ideal power device should have no switching-on and off limitations in terms of turn-on time, turn-off time, current, and voltage handling capabilities. Power semiconductor technology is rapidly developing fast switching power devices with increasing voltage and current limits. Power switching devices such as power BJTs, power MOSFETS, MOSIGTS, SCRS, TRIACS, GTOs, and other semicon- ductor devices are finding increasing applications in a wide range of products. With the availability of faster switching devices, the applications of modern micro- processors in synthesizing the control strategy for gating power devices to meet the conversion specifications are widening the scope of power electronics. The po- tential applications of power electronics is yet to be fully explored.

ГЕОГРАФИЯ ТАЪЛИМИ ЖОНКУЯРЛАРИ

Мазкур рисолада укиш ёки мехдат фаолиятлари Низомий номидаги ТДПУ билан узвий богланган, республикада география фани ва уни укитиш методикаси сохаси ривожига самарали хисса кушган етук географ-методист олимлар хамда ил гор мактаб география укитувчиларининг хаёти ва илмий-педагогик фаолиятлари тугрисида маълумотлар берилган. Рисола магистрантлар, бакалавриат талабалари, катта илмий ходим изланувчилар, урта махсус таълим тизими ва умумтаълим мактабларининг укитувчилари хамда кенг оммага мулжалланган

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE AND MAGNETO-OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

In 1845 Faraday discovered [1] that the polarization vector of linearly polarized light is rotated upon transmission through a sample that is exposed to a magnetic field parallel to the propagation direction of the light. About 30 years later, Kerr [2] observed that when linearly polarized light is reflected from a magnetic solid, its polarization plane also becomes rotated over a small angle with respect to that of the incident light. This discovery has become known as the magneto-optical (MO) Kerr effect. Since then, many other magnetooptical effects, as for example the Zeeman, Voigt and Cotton-Mouton effects [3], have been discovered. These effects all have in common that they are due to a different interaction of left- and right-hand circularly polarized light with a magnetic solid. The Kerr effect has now been known for more than a century, but it was only in recent times that it became the subject of intensive investigation. The reason for this recent development is twofold: first, the Kerr effect is relevant for modern data storage technology, because it can be used to ‘read’ suitably stored magnetic information in an optical manner [4, 5] and second, the Kerr effect has rapidly developed into an appealing spectroscopic tool in materials research. The technological research on the Kerr effect was initially motivated by the search for good magneto-optical materials that could be used as information storage media. In the course of this research, the Kerr spectra of many ferromagnetic materials were investigated. An overview of the experimental and theoretical data collected on the Kerr effect can be found in the review articles by Buschow [6], Reim and Schoenes [7], Schoenes [8], Ebert [9], Antonov et al. [10, 11], and Oppeneer [12].

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUIT THEORY

It is now some 50 years since the first transistor was introduced on December 23, 1947. For those of us who experienced the change from glass envelope tubes to the solid-state era, it still seems like a few short years ago. The first edition of this text contained heavy coverage of tubes, with succeeding editions involving the important decision of how much coverage should be dedicated to tubes and how much to semiconductor devices. It no longer seems valid to mention tubes at all or to compare the advantages of one over the other—we are firmly in the solid-state era. The miniaturization that has resulted leaves us to wonder about its limits. Complete systems now appear on wafers thousands of times smaller than the single element of earlier networks. New designs and systems surface weekly. The engineer becomes more and more limited in his or her knowledge of the broad range of advances— it is difficult enough simply to stay abreast of the changes in one area of research or development. We have also reached a point at which the primary purpose of the container is simply to provide some means of handling the device or system and to provide a mechanism for attachment to the remainder of the network. Miniaturization appears to be limited by three factors (each of which will be addressed in this text): the quality of the semiconductor material itself, the network design technique, and the limits of the manufacturing and processing equipment